Tesi etd-10272025-231834 |
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Tipo di tesi
Tesi di laurea magistrale LM5
Autore
XHEPALIU, JURGEN
URN
etd-10272025-231834
Titolo
Approcci Terapeutici nella Sclerosi Multipla: Analisi dei Farmaci Approvati e delle Prospettive Innovative
Dipartimento
FARMACIA
Corso di studi
FARMACIA
Relatori
relatore Prof.ssa Daniele, Simona
Parole chiave
- approved drugs
- farmaci approvati
- multiple sclerosis
- sclerosi multipla
Data inizio appello
12/11/2025
Consultabilità
Completa
Riassunto
La sclerosi multipla (SM) è una malattia neurodegenerativa autoimmune del sistema nervoso centrale (SNC) causata da una reazione anomala del sistema immunitario, diretto contro componenti del SNC, che provoca uno stato di infiammazione cronico con conseguente riduzione progressiva della funzionalità dell’encefalo e del midollo spinale. Ci sono 2,8 milioni di persone con SM, con una prevalenza di 36 casi ogni 100 mila persone e l’esordio della malattia si aggira tra i 20 e i 50 anni con un’età media di 32 anni. I sintomi possono essere classificati in comuni come fatica, depressione, spasticità, dolore, disturbi visivi, disturbi cognitivi, disturbi della sensibilità, disturbi della coordinazione, disturbi del linguaggio, disturbi parossistici, disturbi sessuali, disturbi vescicali, disturbi intestinali e non comuni come cefalea, udito, crisi epilettica, disfagia, disturbi vascolari, disturbi della respirazione. Si distinguono cinque forme di SM, classificate in base al decorso clinico dei sintomi registrati nel tempo: la sindrome clinicamente isolata che descrive un primo episodio clinico di sintomatologia neurologica che dura almeno 24 ore, causata dai processi di infiammazione e demielinizzazione del SNC, non sfocia necessariamente in SM ma il rischio aumenta all’aumentare delle lesioni; la sclerosi multipla a decorso recidivante-remittente (SM-RR) che si manifesta con episodi acuti chiamati recidive o ricadute, durante i quali compaiono nuovi sintomi o peggiorano quelli esistenti per una durata di almeno 24 ore e, tra una recidiva e l’altra, si alternano periodi di remissione in cui i sintomi migliorano parzialmente o completamente; la sclerosi multipla secondariamente progressiva (SM-SP) caratterizzata da un peggioramento progressivo della disabilità, con o senza ricadute sovrapposte e viene diagnosticata retrospettivamente, ovvero anni dopo l’inizio effettivo della progressione in quanto è complicato individuare il momento esatto del passaggio da una forma all’altra a causa proprio del suo graduale decorso; la sclerosi multipla primariamente progressiva (SM-PP) vede un peggioramento graduale e continuo dei sintomi e della disabilità sin dall’esordio della malattia, senza le tipiche ricadute e remissioni della forma recidivante-remittente ed infine la sindrome radiologicamente isolata (RIS) identifica quei pazienti che, in seguito alla risonanza magnetica, riscontrano accidentalmente lesioni del SNC tipiche della SM, in assenza di sintomi clinici. La causa principale del danno nella SM è l’infiammazione del SNC provocata dall'infiltrazione localizzata di cellule immunitarie (linfociti B e T prima e poi i macrofagi) e dalle loro citochine che una volta superata la barriera ematoencefalica (BEE), provocano la distruzione della mielina (guaina che riveste le fibre nervose), degli oligodendrociti (deputati alla produzione della mielina) e degli assoni delle fibre nervose stesse. La SM è una patologia multifattoriale: le ricerche indicano coinvolti fattori ambientali (latitudine e vitamina D), l’etnia, una predisposizione genetica (gene HLA-DRB1*15:0), genere (donne più colpite), l’esposizione ad agenti infettivi (Virus di Epstein- Barr) e lo stile di vita (fumo ed obesità). La diagnosi SM si basa su una dettagliata anamnesi, una visita neurologica, specifici esami strumentali e biologici (risonanza magnetica, potenziali evocati, analisi del liquido cerebrospinale e del sangue) e criteri diagnostici (disseminazione spaziale e disseminazione temporale). Il trattamento farmacologico della SM prevede l’impiego di diverse categorie di farmaci, scelti in base alla situazione clinica del paziente e agli effetti desiderati: le cosiddette terapie d’attacco (Metilprednilosone) utilizzate per gestire le ricadute, alleviandone i sintomi; le terapie a lungo termine quali le terapie modificanti la malattia (sono disponibili in forme iniettabili come l’interferone beta-1a, l’interferone beta-1b, il glatiramer acetato, il peginterferone beta-1a e l’ofatumumab, poi in farmaci orali come il dimetilfumarato , il diroximel fumarato, il fingolimod, il teriflunomide, la cladribina e l’ozanimod e infine in infusioni endovenose come il Natalizumab, l’alemtuzumab, l’ocrelizumab e il mitoxantrone) quando la malattia è ormai stabilizzata e la disabilità tende a peggiorare per cui mirano a modulare la risposta autoimmune e a diminuire la frequenza delle ricadute ed infine il trattamento con le cellule staminali che grazie alla loro intrinseca capacità di autorigenerarsi e di pluripotenza sono promettenti per la rigenerazione del tessuto nervoso danneggiato, la modulazione delle risposte immunitarie e la promozione di un ambiente favorevole ai meccanismi di riparazione endogeni.
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS) caused by an abnormal reaction of the immune system, directed against components of the CNS, which causes chronic inflammation with a consequent progressive reduction in the functionality of the brain and spinal cord. There are 2.8 million people with MS, with a prevalence of 36 cases per 100,000 people. The onset of the disease is between the ages of 20 and 50, with an average age of 32. Symptoms can be classified as common, such as fatigue, depression, spasticity, pain, visual disturbances, cognitive disturbances, sensory disturbances, coordination disturbances, speech disturbances, paroxysmal disturbances, sexual disturbances, bladder disturbances, and intestinal disturbances, and uncommon, such as headache, hearing, epileptic seizures, dysphagia, vascular disturbances, and breathing disturbances. There are five forms of MS, classified according to the clinical course of symptoms recorded over time: clinically isolated syndrome, which describes a first clinical episode of neurological symptoms lasting at least 24 hours, caused by inflammation and demyelination of the CNS, does not necessarily lead to MS but the risk increases as the lesions increase; relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), which manifests itself in acute episodes called relapses or flare-ups, during which new symptoms appear or existing ones worsen for at least 24 hours, and between relapses there are periods of remission in which symptoms improve partially or completely; Secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) is characterised by a progressive worsening of disability, with or without overlapping relapses, and is diagnosed retrospectively, i.e. years after the actual onset of progression, as it is difficult to identify the exact moment of transition from one form to another due to its gradual course. Primary progressive multiple sclerosis (PPMS) sees a gradual and continuous worsening of symptoms and disability from the onset of the disease, without the typical relapses and remissions of the relapsing-remitting form; and finally, radiologically isolated syndrome (RIS) identifies those patients who, following magnetic resonance imaging, accidentally find CNS lesions typical of MS, in the absence of clinical symptoms. The main cause of damage in MS is inflammation of the CNS caused by the localised infiltration of immune cells (B and T lymphocytes first, then macrophages) and their cytokines, which, once they have crossed the blood-brain barrier (BBB), cause the destruction of myelin (the sheath covering the nerve fibres), oligodendrocytes (responsible for myelin production) and the axons of the nerve fibres themselves. MS is a multifactorial disease: research indicates that environmental factors (latitude and vitamin D), ethnicity, genetic predisposition (HLA-DRB1*15:0 gene), gender (women are more affected), exposure to infectious agents (Epstein-Barr virus) and lifestyle (smoking and obesity) are involved. The diagnosis of MS is based on a detailed medical history, a neurological examination, specific instrumental and biological tests (magnetic resonance imaging, evoked potentials, cerebrospinal fluid and blood analysis) and diagnostic criteria (spatial dissemination and temporal dissemination). The pharmacological treatment of MS involves the use of different categories of drugs, chosen according to the patient's clinical situation and the desired effects: so-called attack therapies (methylprednisolone) used to manage relapses, alleviating their symptoms; long-term therapies such as disease-modifying therapies (available in injectable forms such as interferon beta-1a, interferon beta-1b, glatiramer acetate, peginterferon beta-1a and ofatumumab, and in oral medications such as dimethyl fumarate, diroximel fumarate, fingolimod, teriflunomide, cladribine and ozanimod, and finally in intravenous infusions such as natalizumab, alemtuzumab, ocrelizumab and mitoxantrone) when the disease has stabilised and disability tends to worsen, aiming to modulate the autoimmune response and reduce the frequency of relapses; and finally, treatment with stem cells, which, thanks to their intrinsic capacity for self-renewal and pluripotency, show promise for the regeneration of damaged nerve tissue, modulation of immune responses and promotion of an environment conducive to endogenous repair mechanisms.
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS) caused by an abnormal reaction of the immune system, directed against components of the CNS, which causes chronic inflammation with a consequent progressive reduction in the functionality of the brain and spinal cord. There are 2.8 million people with MS, with a prevalence of 36 cases per 100,000 people. The onset of the disease is between the ages of 20 and 50, with an average age of 32. Symptoms can be classified as common, such as fatigue, depression, spasticity, pain, visual disturbances, cognitive disturbances, sensory disturbances, coordination disturbances, speech disturbances, paroxysmal disturbances, sexual disturbances, bladder disturbances, and intestinal disturbances, and uncommon, such as headache, hearing, epileptic seizures, dysphagia, vascular disturbances, and breathing disturbances. There are five forms of MS, classified according to the clinical course of symptoms recorded over time: clinically isolated syndrome, which describes a first clinical episode of neurological symptoms lasting at least 24 hours, caused by inflammation and demyelination of the CNS, does not necessarily lead to MS but the risk increases as the lesions increase; relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), which manifests itself in acute episodes called relapses or flare-ups, during which new symptoms appear or existing ones worsen for at least 24 hours, and between relapses there are periods of remission in which symptoms improve partially or completely; Secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) is characterised by a progressive worsening of disability, with or without overlapping relapses, and is diagnosed retrospectively, i.e. years after the actual onset of progression, as it is difficult to identify the exact moment of transition from one form to another due to its gradual course. Primary progressive multiple sclerosis (PPMS) sees a gradual and continuous worsening of symptoms and disability from the onset of the disease, without the typical relapses and remissions of the relapsing-remitting form; and finally, radiologically isolated syndrome (RIS) identifies those patients who, following magnetic resonance imaging, accidentally find CNS lesions typical of MS, in the absence of clinical symptoms. The main cause of damage in MS is inflammation of the CNS caused by the localised infiltration of immune cells (B and T lymphocytes first, then macrophages) and their cytokines, which, once they have crossed the blood-brain barrier (BBB), cause the destruction of myelin (the sheath covering the nerve fibres), oligodendrocytes (responsible for myelin production) and the axons of the nerve fibres themselves. MS is a multifactorial disease: research indicates that environmental factors (latitude and vitamin D), ethnicity, genetic predisposition (HLA-DRB1*15:0 gene), gender (women are more affected), exposure to infectious agents (Epstein-Barr virus) and lifestyle (smoking and obesity) are involved. The diagnosis of MS is based on a detailed medical history, a neurological examination, specific instrumental and biological tests (magnetic resonance imaging, evoked potentials, cerebrospinal fluid and blood analysis) and diagnostic criteria (spatial dissemination and temporal dissemination). The pharmacological treatment of MS involves the use of different categories of drugs, chosen according to the patient's clinical situation and the desired effects: so-called attack therapies (methylprednisolone) used to manage relapses, alleviating their symptoms; long-term therapies such as disease-modifying therapies (available in injectable forms such as interferon beta-1a, interferon beta-1b, glatiramer acetate, peginterferon beta-1a and ofatumumab, and in oral medications such as dimethyl fumarate, diroximel fumarate, fingolimod, teriflunomide, cladribine and ozanimod, and finally in intravenous infusions such as natalizumab, alemtuzumab, ocrelizumab and mitoxantrone) when the disease has stabilised and disability tends to worsen, aiming to modulate the autoimmune response and reduce the frequency of relapses; and finally, treatment with stem cells, which, thanks to their intrinsic capacity for self-renewal and pluripotency, show promise for the regeneration of damaged nerve tissue, modulation of immune responses and promotion of an environment conducive to endogenous repair mechanisms.
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